The Argumentative Essay

Quite unlike the ordinary meaning of the word, argument as a term in rhetoric refers to the process of reasoning by advancing proof. Indeed, academic argument can seem dispassionate if one expects that all argument is done with raised voices and heated tempers. Though academic argument often does grow very acrimonious, it is more often the product of careful research and thoughtful consideration of all the facts that one can acquire about the issue. For centuries therefore rhetoricians advocated the writing of an argumentative essay as a means of learning how to think.

Argument demands that the writer examine a belief by testing the strength of the reasons for holding such a belief. Argument of this kind forms a "dialectical structure," a dialog, within the essay itself. In this dialog, the writer explores several sides of the issue under consideration with the readers in an attempt to demonstrate why one perspective is the most enlightened. The writer's analysis of the issues (his/her evaluations of the claims, evidence, assumptions, hidden arguments, and inherent contradictions) leads the writer to champion one perspective of the subject at hand, even though reasonable, thoughtful, intelligent people advocate different perspectives.

In short, the writer of an argument essay has several goals: the primary goals is to persuade and move the audience to accept his/her position on an issue, but that is often a very difficult challenge. A secondary, and more modest goal, is for the writer to articulate why s/he chooses the stance that s/he does on an issue. The secondary goal recognizes the fact that to persuade is a difficult objective but that at least the writer can explain his/her reasoning behind his/her position.
Writing Guidelines

For those reasons, many rhetoricians describe the argument as a dialog, set in writing, between the writer and the readers. In this dialog, the writer introduces his/her subject, makes his/her claim, discusses any necessary background information, and then presents the evidence for the position and in rebuttal to other positions.

1. 
   Writers use different patterns to organize their thoughts as they compose the argument. Essentially, the two most common patters of development are the "clustering" and the "alternating" patterns of presenting evidence. In the clustering pattern, the writer collects the evidence in one place, the objections in another section, and the rebuttal in a third section. In the alternating pattern, the writer shifts between evidence, objection, and rebuttal for each separate piece of evidence before moving to the next piece of evidence.
   
   Argument vs. Opinion
   The single most common misunderstanding in composing an argument is to assume that there is no difference between an argument and an opinion. "But it's all opinion!" we might rightly point out, and, yes, it is true that all claims start out as opinions. (Columbus was thought mad for suggesting that the world was round, remember. The ancients argued that the earth was the center of the universe.) At first glance, it may seem that argumentative essays are "merely" asking you to write your opinion, since there may be no single "correct" way to answer the crucial questions raised by controversial subjects. The crucial difference is that an argument should present a claim (an opinion) supported by reasoning and evidence, which persuades your reader that the thesis your paper advances is a valid one. An opinion is an assertion that is not supported by logic or evidence.
   
   Clustering Patternof Development
   
   Statement and brief explanation of the question or problem, justifying its importance if necessary.
   Statement of the position you are advocating — the claim.
   The evidence (reasons) for the position are presented next.
   The writer adds as much evidence as s/he can muster to support the validity of his/her point of view.
   The writer often organizes the evidence to provide for the greatest impact on the reader.
   Objection to this evidence follow.
   The writer presents the opposing points of view and the evidence/reasoning behind the other perspectives.
   The writer often acknowledges the validity of other viewpoints and weaknesses in his/her own perspective. This can actually help the writer gain ethical appeal from the readers.
   Replies to these objections begin.
   The writer uses evidence and reasoning to explain why the opposition's perspective is not valid.
   The writer may even acknowledge that the opposition's perspective is valid but is somehow unacceptable and therefore less attractive than his/her position on the issue.
   Conclusion: assess the original position in light of presented evidence and rebuttals.
   
   Alternating Pattern of Development
   
   Statement and brief explanation of the question or problem, justifying its importance if necessary.
   Statement of the position you are advocating — the claim.
   First evidence (reason) for the position.
   Objection to this evidence.
   Reply to this objection.
   Continued objections and replies until all material related to this evidence is exhausted.
   Second evidence for the position.
   Objection to this second piece of evidence.
   Reply to this objection.
   Continued objection and replying until all material related to this evidence is exhausted.
   Continuing evidence for the position, until all the evidence has been presented and tested,
   followed by objections and
   replies until all material is exhausted.
   Conclusion: assess the original position in light of presented evidence and rebuttals.